STRATEGIC GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN OXFAM GB
Elsa Dawson, Oxfam
This article describes and assesses a strategy to mainstream gender in
the South America region of Oxfam GB (OGB), both in its programme and
in the organisation’s internal systems and procedures. The experience
shows that how gender equality relates to strategic thinking is key to
its effective incorporation into a programme. If staff do not see gender
equality as a central part of what they are meant to be working on, they
are unlikely to dedicate time to it. This depends both on managerial clarity
and written plans.
SOCIAL CAPITAL, EMPOWERMENT AND THE INTERSECTIONAL IDENTITY
OF WOMEN: A CASE STUDY FROM ETHIOPIA
Caroline Sweetman, Department of Political and International Studies,
University of Leeds
This paper focuses on the livelihoods and empowerment strategies of first
and second generation migrant women living in Kechene, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
They are from a craftsworking group, described by some as an Ethiopian
'caste'. The paper uses the concept of social capital to investigate women's
empowerment strategies in a context of acute and worsening economic want
which both loosens social ties with rural areas, and mitigates against
women in Kechene establishing strong social networks with each other.
Social capital is one of four forms of capital used in livelihoods, but
it is also of key importance in women's empowerment strategies: these
rely on women forging and strengthening their relationships with other
women, to raise their awareness of gender inequality, create opportunities
for independent income generation, and to encourage collective action
to further strategic gender interests. Yet in Kechene weak social networks
together with lack of markets for women's own-account businesses and membership
of relatively stable crafts-based household economies lead many women
to opt not to advance their strategic gender interests. Instead they continue
to invest in the traditional social capital of marriage and family. To
construct this finding as a failure of women to engage with agendas of
empowerment would be to conflate the two distinct aims of collective empowerment
of women as a marginalised group, and individual empowerment of women
whose interests are wider than strategic gender interests. Development
practice needs to reflect awareness of women as individuals embedded in
complex and multiple power relations, and reject the temptation to conflate
women's interests with their strategic gender interests. The paper concludes
by advancing a new conceptual model of empowerment, employing both forgotten
insights from gender and development scholarship, and recent theoretical
work on intersectional identities, and discussing some of the implications
of this model for development policy and practice.
GENDER-BIAS IN THE WITHIN-HOUSEHOLD ALLOCATION OF EDUCATIONAL
EXPENDITURE
Geeta Kingdon, Department of Economics, University of Oxford
This paper addresses the issue of gender bias in the within-household
allocation of education in India. To the extent that gender differences
in the within-household allocation of educational resources lead to gender
differences in educational outcomes and, subsequently to gender differences
in livelihood and labour market outcomes, there is a need to be concerned
about gender bias in intra-household allocations. Gender bias within the
household could be because of a number of factors: due to cultural mores
- such as son-preference - or due to economic reasons: boys’ education
leads to subsequent economic returns to parents but girls’ education
typically does not.
Educational outcomes of girls in South Asia are substantially worse than
the educational outcomes of boys. One mechanism for this might be that
girls receive inferior allocations of educational resources within the
household, e.g. less educational expenditure on daughters than sons. Surprisingly,
however, no evidence has been found of within-household gender bias in
the allocation of educational expenditures there. Of course it is possible
that the reason why no within-household gender bias in educational allocations
has been found is because there is none. Jensen (2002) suggests that due
to son-preferring fertility behaviour among parents, girls typically have
more siblings and larger households and thus inferior educational outcomes
in the population as a whole, without there being any within-household
bias in educational expenditure allocations.
This paper asks whether there is gender bias in educational expenditure
within the household and, if so, why existing studies have failed to find
evidence for it. The research measures the gender gap in educational expenditure
in Indian households using the 1994 rural survey data from 33,000 households
across 16 major states. It examines gender bias in educational expenditures
both directly by inspecting individual level expenditures and also indirectly,
using the household consumption based (Engel curve) methodology. The reliability
of the indirect method has been called into question recently because
it has generally failed to confirm bias even where it is known to exist.
This failure may be to do with the aggregate nature of the data employed
in the method.
The paper seeks to find explanations for the Engel curve’s failure
by exploiting a dataset that has educational expenditure information at
the individual level and also, by aggregation, at the household level.
The paper concludes that only individual level data can accurately capture
the full extent of gender bias.
SESSION F
DOING THINGS DIFFERENTLY: INVESTIGATING THE ROLE OF THE
INDIVIDUAL AGENT IN DEVELOPMENT
Fenella Porter, Development Policy and Practice, Open University
This paper will discuss PhD research that highlighted the interaction
between people and the social/cultural context in which they operate,
as gendered individuals. The paper will discuss in particular the methodology
used in investigating how gendered norms and practices were negotiated
between the research participants.
A feminist epistemological basis (a theory of knowledge based on feminist
values and principles) to the research emphasised both my own (feminist)
values, and the recognised the values of the organisation and people who
participated in the research. This paper will discuss this in relation
to the importance of political engagement, the political relevance of
research, and the social construction of knowledge that takes place throughout
research processes. The negotiation of ‘truth’ in different
socio-cultural contexts is therefore an important element for discussion
in this paper (Oakley 2000, Fonow and Cook 1991, Katz 1992, Schrijvers
1995).
Building on this epistemological base, and particularly on the concern
with the social construction of knowledge, meant that the research was
best served by taking a constructivist approach (Guba and Lincoln 1989;
Huttenen and Heikkinen 1998). This paper will discuss how the project
connected the research to the people involved, and the contexts in which
they lived and worked, in both public and private spheres.
GENDER, AGENCY AND IDENTITY: THE CASE STUDY OF AFGHAN
WOMEN IN AFGHANISTAN AND DIASPORIC COMMUNITIES (IRAN, PAKISTAN, UK, USA)
Dr. Elaheh Rostami Povey, School of Oriental and African Studies, University
of London
This paper will discuss how Afghan women, as diverse groups exercised
autonomy and agency in Afghanistan both under the Taliban and since the
American invasion. They have invented different ways of coping with life,
even under the most extreme forms of coercion and fear (under the Taliban)
and despite limited access to information and under high levels of uncertainties
(Since the American invasion).
As the Other, the refugee, the exile, they don’t find themselves
as having stability in one country. However, despite racism, prejudice
and many forms of (social, economic and cultural) constraints, they have
invented ways of coping with life, with creativity and resourcefulness.
In Afghanistan and in diasporic communities in a world of stereotypes
and misconceptions they have reacted to different structures of power
(male, ethnic, religion, age, regional and international power relations).
They may exist in the borders and peripheries, but they have travelled
across the borders geographically and culturally (Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan,
UK and USA) to construct their unique identity, which is complex and dynamic.
They move beyond the many opposing identities, cultures and languages
(Muslim, Western, Tradition, Modern, Shia, Sunni, Pashtun, Hazara, Tajik,
Ozback…. Iranian, Afghan, Pakistani, American, British, speaking
Dari, Farsi, Pashto, Urdu, English with different accents).
In this new space many Afghan women are able to negotiate ideologies
concerning femininity, masculinity, Islam, the East and the West. They
challenge male dominated way of life and the prejudices in exile in order
to be in control of their destiny.
For some, integration into the exile system is virtually impossible.
They are far removed from either cultures, they remain in an isolated
world caught between different societies, different cultures, different
languges.
Many young Afghans arrived early in infancy or were born in exile. They
speak Farsi / Urdu / English without accent and most do not have a grasp
of their native Afghanistan. Their parents' world is different from their
world. They find themselves caught in the middle of a battle of identity.
Holding on to their Afghan identity and accepting their Iranian / Pakistani
/ British / American identity. Some times these realities are too painful.
Many feel Iranian / Pakistani / British / American, but the exile societies
marginalise them.
These realities, affect women and men differently, they present diverse
views on agency and identity and different ways of gaining an identity.
This study is funded by the ESRC and is based on field research in Afghanistan,
Iran, Pakistan, Britain and the USA. The countries chosen and the individuals
and groups selected for the study in these countries demonstrate a diversity
of religiosity, ethnicity, and class positions. They also represent two
generations of Afghan women.
WOMEN MIGRANT WORKERS IN THE UK: WELL BEING AND SOCIAL
CAPITAL
Marina Della Giusta and Uma Kambhampati, Centre for Institutional Performance,
University of Reading, UK.
The paper reviews the gender and social capital perspectives on migrant
workers in the UK. It relies on data collected amongst women workers in
the care sector in the UK and presents a preliminary analysis of this
data. A majority of women migrants in our sample come from Africa and
Asia and 62% arrived alone (without family). We explore the kind of networks
that the women have built in the UK and the networks they draw upon back
home to facilitate their migration. We also explore factors influencing
the wellbeing of these women and their ability to feel settled in the
UK. In this context, we focus particularly on the impact of social and
human capital, the proximity of children, and future expectations.
WOMEN IN ACTION: IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF LIFE OF DISABLED
CHILDREN IN KENYA.
Sally Hartley, Gladys Murira, Julie Carter, Keith Sullivan, Charles Newton,
Institute of Child Health, London, UK and Kenya Medical Research Institute,
Kilifi, Kenya
The estimated prevalence of disability worldwide is 5-7%. In Kenya 80%
of the population live in rural areas so the majority of this population
is likely to be found in this environment. Evidence from a study in Uganda
suggests that approximately half of disabled children seeking help from
community based rehabilitation programmes have difficulties with communication,
yet there is very little help for this group of children and their families.
In the rural Kilifi district of Kenya there are no community based rehabilitation
programmes, but there are very active women’s groups whose aim is
to improve the quality of life of people in their community. This study
undertook to develop a participatory intervention working with women’s
groups to develop strategies that would improve the communication skills
and the quality of life of disabled children living in their villages.
The study used a mixed methods approach utilizing qualitative approaches
to develop the measurement tools and the intervention. These were implemented
in a random controlled trial, which was monitored and evaluated qualitatively.
The results show an improvement in all children in both communication
and quality of life, but this improvement is only at a level of significance
for quality of life in certain impairment groups. The qualitative data
indicates that the process of participatory intervention is welcomed by
community members. It made a positive effect on some individual children
and families. The limitations of this study will be discussed.
